"The greatest delight which the fields and woods minister, is the suggestion of an occult relation between man and the vegetable."
Ralph Waldo Emerson
It is impossible to suggest that a deep interaction between humankind and nature does not exist. We reap, sow, mine, reclaim, cut, plant, empty, stock, drain, fill, restrain and unleash as want and necessity demand. Yet, any reciprocal relationship is not without its difficulties. Our endeavors in nature cause harm, even as we strive to reduce the harm nature imposes upon our fragile species. How do we harness nature to our benefit without destroying that on which we depend in the physical world?
The answers to this question are what frame the contemporary environmental debate. Rarely do observers and commentators offer forceful yet moderated answers of their own, for polarization is the easier and more comforting route. Pulitzer Prize winner Jared Diamond of UCLA, in his book Collapse, examined a collection of past and present societies, determining how their interaction with the environment and four other factors affected survival. Management of resources and the governing attitudes thereof are critical, according to Diamond.
While Collapse offers both practical and humanistic reasons why the human relationship with the environment is important and can be stabilized, there are also compelling philosophical reasons for the same. This added layer gives both greater justification to Diamond's case and greater incentive to action. Background for the philosophical reasoning will come from Ralph Waldo Emerson's essay, Nature, as Emerson fills an important place in the world's understanding of nature. Therefore, in blending modern scientific reasoning with early American transcendentalism, I will offer answers to these questions:
- What is the world's environmental course today?
- Why do societies choose these environmental courses?
- Why is the environment important?
- How can environmental problems be solved?
If this subject sparks your interest, here are Amazon links to both Collapse and Essays and Poems by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Unless otherwise noted with hyperlinks, the factual knowledge base for this entry is drawn from these two works.
The "Spaceship Earth": Environment Today
Global Adolescence
This Western coming-of-age was best marked by the positivists, who (in oversimplified terms) advocated the supremacy of science and the human race's ability to dictate its future. Yet an unguarded optimism about progress was not wise. Besides the imperialism and economic disparities that spawned Marxism, great environmental ramifications were in order.
Consequences
Not long after the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the bitter irony of progress came into view: our urge to control nature for our benefit will actually harm our chances at survival in the long run. Explosive population growth led to concerns about food shortages, described by Thomas Malthus. Industry led to economic externalities, as pollution of various kinds harmed the health thousands upon thousands. Emissions and gaseous releases led to changes in the atmosphere. Overuse of land leached nutrients and caused biodiversity loss. Globalization oiled the entire process by the distribution of isolated issues between countries or continents.
All of these problems and more, articulated by Diamond, afflict the world today. Modern examples given in Collapse include 1990s Rwanda for the Malthusian dilemma, developing China for pollution and industry costs, present-day Australia for land use issues, and late-20th-century Hispaniola for environmental management decisions. Nature in many ways is only a remnant of what it once was, and will only further diminish as development of the Third World continues as an international focus.
All of these problems and more, articulated by Diamond, afflict the world today. Modern examples given in Collapse include 1990s Rwanda for the Malthusian dilemma, developing China for pollution and industry costs, present-day Australia for land use issues, and late-20th-century Hispaniola for environmental management decisions. Nature in many ways is only a remnant of what it once was, and will only further diminish as development of the Third World continues as an international focus.
Precedents
The environmental consequences of human development are not wholly unexpected. The scope, rather than the substance, is what came with great force in the Industrial Era. Diamond offers a cornucopia of past societies to serve as instructive examples of environmental issues. From the politically-driven deforestation of Easter Island, the desertification of ancient Anasazi land, the drought-driven warfare of Classical Maya kingdoms to the misuse of land and trade by Medieval Norse settlers in Iceland and Greenland, past cultures fell victim to their own choices.
However, Diamond's construing of past societies was not entirely negative. He explained examples of success in New Guinea, Tokugawa Japan and the fragile Polynesian island of Tikopia. Therefore, the picture painted was mixed: the environmental courses of societies are different, even if their problems are the same or very similar. If the independent variable of societal survival is not entirely explained by the dependent variable of breadth and depth of environmental problems (which, Diamond asserts, amounts to determinism), then what other factors are in play? How do peoples respond to problems generally of their own making?
The Human Factor: Why Choices Are Made
However, Diamond's construing of past societies was not entirely negative. He explained examples of success in New Guinea, Tokugawa Japan and the fragile Polynesian island of Tikopia. Therefore, the picture painted was mixed: the environmental courses of societies are different, even if their problems are the same or very similar. If the independent variable of societal survival is not entirely explained by the dependent variable of breadth and depth of environmental problems (which, Diamond asserts, amounts to determinism), then what other factors are in play? How do peoples respond to problems generally of their own making?
The Human Factor: Why Choices Are Made
Interconnectedness
A common factor that explains the variation in societal survival is integration. The tight-knit and dependent clans of Easter Island responded to environmental stresses by competing amongst themselves, using common trade networks to exploit more and more resources. The Polynesian islands of Henderson, Pitcairn, and Mangareva fell into a cycle of decay after resources existing on one island caused others to fail, due to trade routes. Norse Greenland imploded after it could no longer nurture its identity from far-off Europe via cultural importation. Modern day Australia suffers from species introduced due to interconnectedness with Great Britain.
Being interconnected is not inherently bad, but when combined with environmental problems it certainly raises the potential for collapse.
Rigidity
Reluctance to change is also a determining factor in whether or not societies survive. The Norse Greenland peoples could have survived, according to Diamond, if they cooperated and adapted as the local Inuit did. Haiti's insular attitude prevented economic development and foreign aid that could have rectified its deforestation and chronic instability. The Dominican Republic, the country sharing Hispaniola with Haiti, in fact made these adjustments and emerged as a much more successful state in the long run. In another example, Tikopians abandoned their economic mainstay of pig farming in order to prevent overgrazing.
While socioeconomic conservatism as a reaction can be good, such as when Iceland circled its wagons to save its environment, conservatism as simply refusing to change in the first place in the face of problems can lead to failure and decline. A microcosm of this principle is evident in small-town Texas, as I demonstrated with the comparison of Jacksboro and Graham in this April entry.
While socioeconomic conservatism as a reaction can be good, such as when Iceland circled its wagons to save its environment, conservatism as simply refusing to change in the first place in the face of problems can lead to failure and decline. A microcosm of this principle is evident in small-town Texas, as I demonstrated with the comparison of Jacksboro and Graham in this April entry.
Government
As with interconnectedness and rigidity, government is also capable of good or ill use in reaction to environmental problems. Diamond classified government solutions as "top-down" factors, while the rigidity of other societies mentioned previously came from the "bottom-up." Tokugawa Japan made stringent government requirements on forest cutting quotas in order to preserve their resources. Modern China implemented the One Child Policy in order to prevent overpopulation, thereby averting an even greater amount of environmental damage.
Governments, though, are imperfect instruments. Diamond lists a number of implications for policymakers that can prevent real solutions. A failure to anticipate problems, a failure to perceive them once they've actually arrived, a failure to act on known problems, and failure to solve even with action are considered obstacles to the government being the end-all with environmental policy.
Governments, though, are imperfect instruments. Diamond lists a number of implications for policymakers that can prevent real solutions. A failure to anticipate problems, a failure to perceive them once they've actually arrived, a failure to act on known problems, and failure to solve even with action are considered obstacles to the government being the end-all with environmental policy.
Business
At times feeding into the governmental failures is the role of business. Under-regulated industry will often operate for short-term gain, because of the legal obligation of the company to its shareholders to generate profit. Lack of awareness and governmental pressure often allows businesses to avoid liability and conservation. Often, policies themselves, such as the U.S. government's 19th-century drive to aid the mining industry and therefore the economy of the West, create the destructive attitudes in the businesses themselves.
At the same time, business can operate as a force for sustainability. Recognizing the need for local support, image, employee morale and a favorable perception by the government, businesses see more profit in safety and environmental precaution. Diamond cites Chevron as an example of a company implementing environmentally sound policies that go above and beyond legal standards.
At the same time, business can operate as a force for sustainability. Recognizing the need for local support, image, employee morale and a favorable perception by the government, businesses see more profit in safety and environmental precaution. Diamond cites Chevron as an example of a company implementing environmentally sound policies that go above and beyond legal standards.
Point Being?
Human choice from the individual to group level clearly affects the success of a society when confronted with environmental issues. Thus, there is a proven ability to choose on the part of mankind. The question, though, is why should mankind exercise that ability?
"The Pith and Marrow of Every Substance": Significance of Nature
"The Pith and Marrow of Every Substance": Significance of Nature
Science
Diamond Scratches Diamond
Because the focus of this entry is qualitative and historical, the scientific implications of environmental destruction will only be covered in short. In Collapse, the impacts listed include declining agricultural productivity, loss of species valuable to natural processes, increasing health problems, climatic unpredictability, violence, impoverishment, malnutrition and general global instability coming with increasing severity over the next fifty years.
Diamond Scratches Diamond
After presenting a powerful message about the past and present implications of environmental damage and human responses thereto, Jared Diamond gives a traditionally humanist slate of reasons why these impacts are important. As Gifford Pinchot, early American environmental advocate said, "conservation means the greatest good to the greatest number for the longest time." The Marquis de Condorcet rephrased the same idea when he asserted, "if [men] have a duty toward those who are not yet born, that duty is not to give them existence but to give them happiness." These two quotes reveal the underpinnings of the scientific humanist/modern utilitarian outlook.
To add a soulful and deeper philosophical element to the necessity of the environment and solving these difficulties, I now offer the work of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Humanism alone cannot provide justification for the modern world to make committed efforts to solving its environmental enigmas. Emerson shows how nature is essential to the soul of each person. An important clarification should be made here: Emerson describes nature as "all that is separate from us," which includes human construction, art and ideas. Therefore I am taking a much broader view than a Greenpeace-esque environmentalism. The implications listed above mean everything in Emerson's definition of nature should be considered.
To add a soulful and deeper philosophical element to the necessity of the environment and solving these difficulties, I now offer the work of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Humanism alone cannot provide justification for the modern world to make committed efforts to solving its environmental enigmas. Emerson shows how nature is essential to the soul of each person. An important clarification should be made here: Emerson describes nature as "all that is separate from us," which includes human construction, art and ideas. Therefore I am taking a much broader view than a Greenpeace-esque environmentalism. The implications listed above mean everything in Emerson's definition of nature should be considered.
Practical Necessity
Emerson describes nature first as "commodity." Nature is our ally for the "splendid ornaments" it bequeaths us. "All the parts incessantly work into each other's hands for the profit of man," Emerson says. Humans are dependent on nature for their day to day activities and the foundations of economy. Nature serves, and therefore should be stewarded so that it may serve still, keeping the rhythms of human life moving.
Personal Necessity
Nature evokes far more than just a physical dependence. Even if nature diminished, man would still possess a soul and heart, capable of communicating and creating as its own institution, right? Emerson resoundingly rejects this idea, however. Describing beauty, he first articulates how nature is beautiful to behold. Second, he links natural beauty with good, as "beauty is the mark God sets upon virtue." Third, he asserts "the beauty of nature re-forms itself in the mind...for new creation," meaning that art arises from the beholding of nature. Therefore, if nature is lost, so too is the perception of beauty, the strength and mark of virtue and the ability to be creative.
Next, Emerson discusses language. He claims that all expression, not just art, is founded on a bond between natural facts and spiritual concepts. Humans express with analogies, and comprehend lessons based on links to their own experience in the world. Reading only resonates, therefore, if it has some root in the individual's life. Building his advocacy of self-reliance, Emerson claims nature as essential to the expressiveness and thoughtfulness of the human conscience. If nature diminishes, then with it goes effective communication and spiritual understanding.
Next, Emerson discusses language. He claims that all expression, not just art, is founded on a bond between natural facts and spiritual concepts. Humans express with analogies, and comprehend lessons based on links to their own experience in the world. Reading only resonates, therefore, if it has some root in the individual's life. Building his advocacy of self-reliance, Emerson claims nature as essential to the expressiveness and thoughtfulness of the human conscience. If nature diminishes, then with it goes effective communication and spiritual understanding.
Spiritual Necessity
The central theme of Nature comes quickly as Emerson moves to assess how to act and have the "discipline" of natural perception. Here, nature is seen as central to ascertaining intellectual truths, as all knowledge derives from nature itself. Nature, according to Emerson, "is made to serve" for the mind and spirit. Objects "reflect the conscience." At the core of every human is nature, and here is where Emerson reaches his grand conclusion quoted in bold at the beginning of this section.
Progressing from this core statement, the unity of nature is appraised. All things are dependent on one another, thus adding incredible depth and explanation to the idea that humanity is dependent on nature presented at the beginning of this entry. If nature falters, then with it diminishes the soulfulness of each person.
Liberated Action: How To Solve
Because true depth of human experience relies on nature's vibrancy, solutions are clearly needed. The portrait is not so dire, however, when one considers the many success stories mentioned in Collapse.
A basic set of solutions draws from these stories. A good mix of top-down and bottom-up action, local autonomy in decision-making, a willingness to put aside harmful societal values for the long term health of the entire population, leadership committed to preventive rather than palliative measures, effective government policy that encourages businesses to see more profit in the long-term than in the short term, a recognition that business is essential to the sustainability of a society, effective multilateralism on environmental issues between states (something difficult as evidenced by the Copenhagen talks) and action to promote scientific and historical awareness of all these concepts will all lead to a more hopeful future.
All of these solutions funnel into one central concept: that humanity's values when dealing with environmental problems must be synthesized directly with the needs of nature itself. Again, this is not a radical prescription, for it upholds the value of business, economy, infrastructure and the like to the implementation of these values. After all, humans and their creations are part of the landscape itself. Progress cannot be made if the environmental debate remains polarized. More empathy between sides and synthesizing forces like Jared Diamond should aid the process.
A final question remains: will these solutions be effective? There lies the resolution of the irony of progress: human development presented solutions to its own problems. Liberty, the freedom to choose one's own course of action, is empowered more than ever before by the modern world. In the end, the "occult relationship between man and vegetable" will be powerfully upheld by the liberated action of individuals who understand their deep spiritual dependence on the world around them. This is environmentalism. This is the contract between man and nature.
Progressing from this core statement, the unity of nature is appraised. All things are dependent on one another, thus adding incredible depth and explanation to the idea that humanity is dependent on nature presented at the beginning of this entry. If nature falters, then with it diminishes the soulfulness of each person.
Liberated Action: How To Solve
Because true depth of human experience relies on nature's vibrancy, solutions are clearly needed. The portrait is not so dire, however, when one considers the many success stories mentioned in Collapse.
A basic set of solutions draws from these stories. A good mix of top-down and bottom-up action, local autonomy in decision-making, a willingness to put aside harmful societal values for the long term health of the entire population, leadership committed to preventive rather than palliative measures, effective government policy that encourages businesses to see more profit in the long-term than in the short term, a recognition that business is essential to the sustainability of a society, effective multilateralism on environmental issues between states (something difficult as evidenced by the Copenhagen talks) and action to promote scientific and historical awareness of all these concepts will all lead to a more hopeful future.
All of these solutions funnel into one central concept: that humanity's values when dealing with environmental problems must be synthesized directly with the needs of nature itself. Again, this is not a radical prescription, for it upholds the value of business, economy, infrastructure and the like to the implementation of these values. After all, humans and their creations are part of the landscape itself. Progress cannot be made if the environmental debate remains polarized. More empathy between sides and synthesizing forces like Jared Diamond should aid the process.
A final question remains: will these solutions be effective? There lies the resolution of the irony of progress: human development presented solutions to its own problems. Liberty, the freedom to choose one's own course of action, is empowered more than ever before by the modern world. In the end, the "occult relationship between man and vegetable" will be powerfully upheld by the liberated action of individuals who understand their deep spiritual dependence on the world around them. This is environmentalism. This is the contract between man and nature.
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